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公元158年 丝路帝国2.0（AD.158 Silk Road Empires 2.0)

The Eurasian Continent in 158 CE: The Quadripartite Imperial Landscape

**Eastern Han Dynasty (East Asia)**
1. **Politics and Military**
The Eastern Han was under Emperor Huan (r. 146–168 CE). Though the dynasty had enjoyed prosperity following the *Guangwu Restoration* and *Mingzhang Golden Age*, internal crises were emerging: eunuch dominance intensified, aristocratic land monopolies worsened, and social tensions simmered. The Protectorate of the Western Regions maintained control over Central Asia, with the Kushan Empire forced to pay tribute after Ban Chao’s subjugation of the Western Regions in 91 CE. The Han sustained influence over Central Asia via the Silk Road.

2. **Economy and Culture**
Silk Road trade thrived, with Chinese silk and lacquerware reaching Rome via Parthia. Buddhism entered China through Kushan. Han iron-smelting and papermaking technologies led the world, yet social instability foreshadowed the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 CE).

**Roman Empire (Europe-Mediterranean)**
1. **Territory and Governance**
Rome was in the *Pax Romana* under the Antonine Dynasty (96–192 CE). Its territories spanned Europe, Asia, and Africa, but expansion had halted in favor of border consolidation (e.g., Hadrian’s Wall). By 158 CE, under Antoninus Pius’ late reign, internal stability masked succession uncertainties and provincial revolts.

2. **Trade and Diplomacy**
Rome traded with India and Arabia via the Red Sea route, indirectly acquiring Chinese silk and Kushan Buddhist art. Knowledge of Han China remained limited to myths of *Seres* (“Silk-Land”), with no direct contact.

**Parthian Empire (West Asia-Central Asia)**
1. **Geopolitical Role**
Parthia dominated the Persian Plateau to Mesopotamia, monopolizing Silk Road trade between Han and Rome, extracting heavy tariffs. Its capital, Ctesiphon (near Baghdad), was a hub for East-West goods.

2. **Military and Decline**
Parthia and Rome clashed over Mesopotamia (e.g., the 161–166 CE war), draining Parthian strength. Though militarily weaker than Han or Rome, its cavalry secured Central Asian trade routes. By 158 CE, Parthia was declining, setting the stage for the Sasanian Persian rise.

**Kushan Empire (Central Asia-South Asia)**
1. **Zenith and Expansion**
Under Kanishka I (r. c. 78–102 CE), Kushan reached its peak, stretching from Iran’s borders to the Ganges. Its capital, Purushapura (Peshawar), became a Buddhist art hub, blending Greek and Indian styles into Gandharan art.

2. **Conflict with the Han**
In 90 CE, Kushan invaded the Western Regions after being denied a Han princess, but Ban Chao defeated its 70,000-strong army. By 158 CE, Kushan retained control of Central Asian trade but faced internal fragmentation.

**Interconnected Imperial Dynamics**
The Silk Road linked the empires: Han exported silk and lacquerware; Rome traded glass and metalware; Kushan transmitted Buddhism; Parthia monopolized overland trade. Gandharan art and Mahayana Buddhism spread to China, Roman siege technology reached Central Asia via Parthia, and Han ironworking indirectly influenced Europe.

**The Fragile Balance**
In 158 CE, Eurasia stood in a precarious quadripartite equilibrium: the Han was strong but internally strained; Rome appeared stable yet harbored crises; Parthia profited from trade but declined; Kushan blended cultures but risked fracture. By the late 2nd century CE, internal collapses (e.g., Han’s Yellow Turban Rebellion, Rome’s Third-Century Crisis) and external pressures (Sasanian rise, Xianbei invasions) shattered this order, heralding the end of the classical era.