⚔️𝙍𝙊𝙈𝘼𝙉 𝙇𝙀𝙂𝙄𝙊𝙉𝘼𝙍𝙄𝙐𝙎⚔️

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑹𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 (𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒔) 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑹𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒑𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒂.

History

~A recreation of Roman legionaries wearing the lorica segmentata, 1st–3rd century~

Inception: Marius's reforms

When Gaius Marius became consul in 108 BC, Rome was at war with the Numidian king Jugurtha. Seeing a need for more manpower, Marius eliminated the property requirements that used to qualify Romans into the army, allowing any Roman citizen to become a legionary. After the war, Marius set out to professionalize and standardize the Roman legionary. He greatly enhanced the training of the soldiers and uniformly armed them, giving Rome an armed force that did not have to be raised with every new campaign. He further gave his soldiers retirement benefits, such as land or monetary payment. However, because the legionaries looked to their generals for their rewards and benefits, they soon became loyal to generals rather than the Roman senate. This would eventually factor in to the end of the Roman republic.

During the Principate

As Augustus consolidated power in 27BC and founded the Principate, he further professionalized the Roman legionary and sought to break the legionary's dependence on his general. Under him, a legionary's term of service was raised to 25 years (before that, a legionary's average term of service was only 10 years) and pay was standardized throughout the legions. The Roman legionaries were also guaranteed a land grant or a cash payment at the end of his service, making the Roman legionary less dependent on generals for rewards after campaigns. Augustus also changed the sacramentum so that soldiers swore allegiance only to the emperor, and not to the general. Thus, Augustus managed to end the civil wars which defined the late Roman Republic and created an army that was broadly loyal to only the emperor.

Legionaries would expand Rome's borders to include lower Britannia, Dacia, North Africa, and more through military campaigns under Augustus and future emperors.

Decline

From the reign of Septimus Severus onward, the Roman legionary gradually lost his preeminence. Though there were multiple causes for this decline, all pointed to the gradual degradation of loyalty and/or discipline. Septimus Severus, perhaps unwittingly, began this decline when he lavished his legionaries with donatives and pay increases, recognising that they were his key to becoming and staying emperor. However, this proved detrimental to the discipline of the legionaries, as they began to expect more and more rewards from their emperors. Under Caracalla, Septimus Severus's successor, all freedmen in the Roman Empire became Roman citizens, effectively erasing the distinction between auxiliaries and legionaries. This, coinciding with the continued expansion of the Roman army, meant recruits of more dubious standards joined the legions, decreasing the quality of the Roman legionary further.

During the 3rd Century Crisis, a more mobile army became necessary, as threats arose across the long borders of the Roman Empire. As such, mounted cavalry became essential to respond to the varied challenges to the empire. Because of this, Roman heavy infantry faded further from dominance. By the 4th century, Roman infantry lacked much of the body armor of the classical legionary and used darts rather than the pila of their predecessors

~Clibinarii, a type of heavy cavalry in the late Roman Empire, grew in prominence along with other forms of cavalry as the Roman legionary declined.~

Functions

Though the legionary was first and foremost a soldier, he provided a variety of other critical functions. Lacking a professional police force, governors would use legionaries to keep the peace and protect critical facilities. As the Roman empire lacked a large civil administration, the army would often be given many administrative positions. High ranking soldiers often acted as judges in disputes among local populations and the army was an important component of tax collection. Legionaries also served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect.

Roman legionaries served as a source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls. Hadrian's wall, a monumental example of Roman engineering, was built by the three legions stationed in the area. Legionaries were not just limited to building large-scale engineering projects. Surveyors, doctors, artisans, and engineers within the army would be used for a variety of different civil services along with their normal military role.

Immunes

Regular trained legionaries were known as milites and were the equivalent in rank of the modern private. Included in the ranks, aside from the milites, were the immunes, specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as engineer, artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor, carpenter and medic. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in the ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues and received better pay than their comrades in arms.

Recruitment

Though Roman legionaries were predominantly made up of volunteer citizens, conscription of recruits continued through Republic era and into the Principate, especially in times of crisis. This meant that levees remained a significant part of the Roman legions. With the state providing the equipment to the recruits and no property requirements, even the poorest Roman citizens were able to join the legions. However, the army was viewed as an honorable and valued profession. With a steady pay, good retirement benefits, and even certain legal advantages, a legionary had many perks that common citizens found desirable. As such, though poor citizens could join the military, members from across the plebeian class were found in the Roman legions. Indeed, the army served as one of the few avenues of upward mobility in the Roman world.

The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as centurion required a knowledge of writing. During the Later Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy itself. By the reign of Trajan, there were 4-5 legionaries originating from the provinces for every legionary originating from Italy.

Equipment

When on the march in hostile territory, the legionary would carry or wear full armour, supplies and equipment. This commonly consisted of lorica hamata, lorica squamata, or 1st–3rd century lorica segmentata, shield (scutum), helmet (galea), two javelins (one heavy pilum and one light verutum), a short sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio), a belt (balteus), a pair of heavy sandals (caligae), a pair of greaves, a pair of manicas, a marching pack (sarcina), about fourteen days' worth of food, a waterskin (bladder for posca), cooking equipment, two stakes (sudes murale) for the construction of palisades, and a shovel, and a wicker basket.

After the military reforms of Emperor Claudius (circa 41 AD), each Legion would also be requisitioned a certain number of artillery pieces. Each cohort (roughly 480 men) would receive one Ballista; and each century (roughly 80 men) would receive one Carroballista. In a standard Legionary formation of ten cohorts and sixty centuries, a Legion would be equipped with ten Ballista and sixty Carroballista.

Weapons of a Roman legionary - Pugio, Gladius and Spatha

Pugio

A pugio is a dagger used by Roman soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. It was changed by making the blade a little thinner, about 3 mm, and the handle was also made out of metal. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.

Around 50 AD, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the pugio's appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 3.5 cm wide), and had little or no waisting, and had reduced or vestigial midribs.

Throughout the period, the outline of the hilt remained approximately the same. It was made with two layers of horn, wood or bone sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with inlaid silver. The hilt was 10–12 cm long overall and the grip was quite narrow; which produced a very secure grip. An expansion or lump in the middle of the handle made the user's grip even more secure.

~Reconstruction of a pugio: a Roman soldier from a northern province~

Gladius

Gladius is the general Latin word for "sword". In the Roman Republic, the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC. It is considered to be the primary weapon used by soldiers in war. Several different better-known designs followed; among collectors and historical reenactors, the two primary kinds of swords are known as the Mainz gladius, and the Pompeii gladius which follows the Mainz type, which had itself followed the Hispaniensis (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the appearance of the earlier version, the gladius Hispaniensis. The legionaries wore their gladii on their right hips. In order to craft a sword with the strength and flexibility of the gladius, blacksmiths used harder steels on the outer layers of the sword while using softer steels in the center of the blade.

~Re-enactor with Pompeii-type gladius~

Spatha

A spatha could be any sword (in late Latin), but most often one of the longer swords characteristic of the middle and late Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry started using these longer swords, and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, Roman infantry also switched to longer swords, as well as mostly changing from carrying javelins to carrying spears.

Shorter weapons (short swords and possibly sometimes daggers) were known as semispathae or half-swords. A large 3rd-century hoard from Künzing included one triangular-bladed short sword and several narrow-bladed short swords (with 23–39 cm blades). Bishop and Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken spathae.

Weapons of a Roman legionary - Spears and javelins (hastae)

Hasta

Hasta is a Latin word meaning a thrusting spear. Hastae were carried by early Roman legionaries (camillan); in particular, they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as hastati. However, during republican times, the hastati were re-armed with pila and gladii, and only the triarii still used hastae.

A hasta was about 1.8 meters (six feet) in length. The shaft was generally made from ash while the head was usually of iron, although early republican hastae also had tips made of bronze.

Javelin

Although Romans often used the word pila to refer to all thrown javelins, the term pilum also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the velites and the early legions, called verutum. Other types of javelins were adopted by the late Roman army, such as the lancea and the spiculum, which were heavily influenced by the weapons of Italic warriors.

Pilum

The pilum (plural pila) was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than two metres (6 ft 7 in) long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about 7 mm (0.28 inches) in diameter and 60 cm (23.6 in) long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang. A pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms (4.4 and 8.8 lb), with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter.

Pila were designed to penetrate both shield and armour, wounding the wearer; but, if they simply stuck in a shield, they could not easily be removed. Some believed that the iron shank would bend upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and also preventing the pilum from being immediately re-used. Some versions of the shaft may have fallen off on impact, leaving the enemy with a bent shank in their shield. However, recent evidence suggests that many types of pilum did not bend at all, but reduced the effectiveness of enemy shields by simply getting stuck due to the shape of its larger head and thin shank. In fact, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the pilum more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers. Newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the pila are "unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground" - rather, it is human intervention [e.g., improper removal of a pilum stuck in a target] that is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the pilum bent when soldiers tried to remove them. A sturdy pilum that does not bend upon impact would be in line with the numerous historical Roman writings that state the pilum was often used as a weapon in melee combat: For example, in "The Gallic Wars" Caesar writes that at Alesia his troops used the pila as spears or pikes. In the "Life of Pompey" and "Life of Antony", Plutarch describes Caesar's men at Pharsalus jabbing upwards at the faces of Pompey's cavalry with their javelins and Marc Antony's men stabbing at Parthian cavalry with theirs. In Arrian in Array against the Alans, Arrian writes that the first four ranks of the formation should use their pila like spearmen, while the rest should use them like javelins.

Weapons of a Roman legionary - Projectile weapons

Bow

The sagittarius was armed with a composite bow (arcus), shooting an arrow (sagitta), made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue. However, Vegetius recommended training recruits "arcubus ligneis", with wooden bows. The reinforcing laths for the composite bows were found throughout the empire, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.

Crossbow

The cheiroballistra, also known as the manuballista, was a crossbow that was occasionally used by the Romans. The ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate. Roman authors like Vegetius (fl. 4th century) note repeatedly the use of arrow shooting weapons such as arcuballista and manuballista respectively cheiroballista. While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find.

The Roman commander Arrian records in his Tactica Roman cavalry training for shooting some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback. Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. These are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow.

~Roman crossbow~

Plumbatae

Late infantrymen often carried a half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.

Entrenching tools

Ancient writers, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of spades and other digging implements as important tools of war. A Roman legion when on the march would dig a ditch and rampart around their camps every night where established camps were not available. They were also useful as improvised weapons.

Dolabra

The dolabra is a versatile axe used by the people of Italy since ancient times. The dolabra could serve as a pickaxe used by miners and excavators, a priest's implement for ritual religious slaughtering of animals and as an entrenching tool (mattock) used in Roman infantry tactics. In the 1st century CE, at the battle of Augustodunum, armoured Gallic gladiators were defeated by legionaries wielding dolabrae.

Mattock

A mattock /ˈmætək/ is a hand tool used for digging, prying, and chopping. Similar to the pickaxe, it has a long handle and a stout head which combines either a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze (cutter mattock), or a pick and an adze (pick mattock). A cutter mattock is similar to a Pulaski used in fighting fires. It is also commonly known in North America as a "grub axe".

Falx

The falx was a weapon with a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge used by the Thracians and Dacians and, later, a siege hook used by the Romans.

Torso armour

Not all troops wore torso armour. Light infantry, especially in the early republic, wore little or no armour. This was both to allow swifter movement for light troops and also as a matter of cost.

Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armour or lorica segmentata or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armour which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour (lorica hamata) and scale armour (lorica squamata). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable without padding: re-enactors have confirmed that wearing a padded undergarment known as a subarmalis relieves the wearer from bruising both from prolonged wear and from shock produced by weapon blows against the armour. It was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the segmentata appears to have been dropped and troops are depicted wearing mail armour (mainly) or scale, the standard armour of the 2nd-century auxilia. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the Notitia show that the army's fabricae (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts. Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the principate, together with traditional pteruges.

Lorica segmentata

Lorica segmentata was a type of body armour primarily used in the early Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consisted of broad ferrous strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back by means of brass hooks, which were joined by leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to possibly the early 4th century) types. There is also a little-known fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Julia in Romania, where there appears to have been a hybrid form, the shoulders being protected by scale armour and the torso hoops being fewer in number and deeper.

The earliest evidence of the lorica segmentata being worn is around 9 BC (Dangstetten), and the armour was evidently quite common in service until the 2nd century AD, judging from the number of finds throughout this period (over 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain). However, even during the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the lorica hamata - thus the hamata mail was still standard issue for both heavy infantry and auxiliaries alike. The last recorded use of this armour seems to have been for the last quarter of the 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).

There are two opinions as to who used this form of armour. One is that only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmentata. Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the lorica hamata, or lorica squamata. The second viewpoint is that both legionaries and auxiliary soldiers used the segmentata armour and this latter view is supported, to some degree, by archaeological findings. The lorica segmentata offered greater protection than the lorica hamata for about half of the weight, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The expenses attributed to the segmentata may account for the reversion to ring-mail after the 3rd to 4th century. Alternatively, all forms of armour may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry waned in favour of the speed of mounted troops.

~A reenactor dressed as a Roman soldier in lorica segmentata~

Lorica hamata

Lorica hamata was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops (auxilia). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the lorica hamata had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek linothorax; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one lorica hamata.

Although labour-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. Its utility was such that the later appearance of the famous lorica segmentata—which afforded greater protection for a third of the weight—never led to the disappearance of the ubiquitous mail, and, in fact, the army of the late empire reverted to the lorica hamata once the segmentata had fallen out of fashion.

~Detail of mail (replica) with 4-in-1 scheme~

Lorica squamata

Lorica squamata was a type of scale armour used during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a lorica hamata, mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.The individual scales (squamae) were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in) perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 6 mm (0.25 in) wide by 1.2 cm tall up to about 5 cm (2 in) wide by 8 cm (3 in) tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1.25 by 2.5 cm (0.5 by 1 in). Many had rounded bottoms, while others were pointed or had flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle.

The scales could be flat, slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge. All the scales in a shirt were generally of the same size; however, scales from different shirts varied significantly.The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to secure the scales to the backing or to each other.It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour's suppose

Shields

Scutum

The scutum (Classical Latin: [ˈskuːt̪ʊ̃]; plural scuta) was a type of shield used among Italic peoples in antiquity, and then by the army of ancient Rome starting about the fourth century BC.

The Romans adopted it when they switched from the military formation of the hoplite phalanx of the Greeks to the formation with maniples (Latin: manipuli). In the former, the soldiers carried a round shield, which the Romans called a clipeus. In the latter, they used the scutum, which was larger. Originally it was oblong and convex, but by the first century BC it had developed into the rectangular, semi-cylindrical shield that is popularly associated with the scutum in modern times. This was not the only kind the Romans used; Roman shields were of varying types depending on the role of the soldier who carried it. Oval, circular and rectangular shapes were used throughout Roman history.

~Reenactment of an early imperial legionary shield array~

Parma

The parma was about 36 inches (91 cm) across (or less) and had iron in its frame, making it a very effective piece of armour. Parmae had handles and shield bosses (umbones).

The parma was used by legionnaires in the early republican period of Rome's history, by the lowest class division of the army— the velites. Their equipment consisted of a parma, javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the parma was replaced by the body-length scutum as velites were phased out with the Marian reforms.

~Reconstruction of a Roman cavalry man with a parma~

Caetra

A light shield of wood and leather, the name from Greek (καίτρεα, Hesych.). Used by tribesmen from Hispania, Mauretania, and Britannia.

Helmets

Roman helmets, galea or cassis, varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the Montefortino helmet used by the Republic armies up to the 1st century BC. This was replaced directly by the Coolus helmet, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet". The Galea was used from the late 1st century BC to the late 2nd century AD and it drew influence from the Gallic tribes to the north, hence its name. Roman helmets usually featured a bowl protecting the head, an extension at the back with a neck guard, a ridge above the forehead for additional impact protection and decoration, and hinged cheek guards which left the ears exposed for better hearing in the battlefield. They were eventually replaced by the ridge helmet and the Spangenhelm during the late imperial period.

~Modern reconstruction of a centurion's helmet, first century. The embossed eyebrows and the circular brass bosses are typical of the Imperial Gallic helmets.~

A galea ([ˈɡäɫ̪eä], from Greek γαλέη, galéē, "weasel, marten") was a Roman soldier's helmet. Some gladiators, specifically myrmillones, also wore bronze galeae with face masks and decorations, often a fish on its crest. The exact form or design of the helmet varied significantly over time, between differing unit types, and also between individual examples – pre-industrial production was by hand – so it is not certain to what degree there was any standardization even under the Roman Empire.

Originally, Roman helmets were influenced by the neighboring Etruscans, people who utilised the "Nasua" type helmets. The Greeks in the south also influenced Roman design in its early history.

The primary evidence is scattered archaeological finds, which are often damaged or incomplete. There are similarities of form and function between them.

Legionary infantry helmets types

Montefortino helmet (4th century BC – 1st century AD)
Coolus helmet (3rd century BC – at least 79 AD)
Imperial Gallic helmet (late 1st century BC – early 2nd century AD)
Imperial Italic helmet (late 1st BC – early 3rd century AD)
Ridge helmet, first depicted on coins of 4th-century AD emperor Constantine I

Limb armour

Manica

From early imperial times to after the fall of the Western Empire, some troops wore segmented armour on one or both arms. The manica was first used by gladiators and it was made either from padded cloth or overlapping metal sheets. Roman legionaries are depicted wearing manicas in engravings of the Dacian Wars.

Greave

Greaves, sheet metal protecting the legs, were widely used in the early republic, and by some troops in the imperial army. Early Roman legionaries would wear a single greave on the left leg which was more exposed under the shield, as it was fashion in Italic cultures.

Clothing

Tunic: a basic garment worn under the armour by all soldiers in the republic and early empire. Normally made of wool. Tunics originally consisted simply of a piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves, and worn with braccae.

Subarmalis: A padded jacket made out of linen or leather, worn underneath armours such as the lorica hamata or lorica segmentata to provide impact protection as well as better weight distribution and comfort.

Focale: a scarf worn by legionaries to protect the neck from chafing caused by constant contact with the soldier's armour (typically lorica hamata or lorica segmentata) and helmet

Balteus: a sword belt

Cingulum militare: a type of decorated belt denoting rank

Braccae: woollen trousers

Subligaria: underpants. Their existence was confirmed by one of the Vindolanda tablets.

Cloak: two types of cloaks were used, the sagum and the paenula. Both were made from wool, which insulated and also contained natural oil to repel water. They were fastened with a fibula. The paenula was hooded in colder climates. Since every common soldier slept in the open, it was important that he have a warm full-length wrap, but necessary that he carry it with him each day regardless of his activities. This was accomplished by a cloak of more than body length, double-folded so that it did not fall beneath the knees when worn. An excellent illustration of this is the statue of Caesar Augustus atop the theater in the Roman city of Orange, in what is now France.

Caligae: military boots worn by legionaries and auxiliaries throughout the history of the Roman Republic and Empire. The boots were made from leather and laced up the center of the foot and onto the top of the ankle. Iron hobnails were hammered into the sole for added strength. Similar to the modern cleat.

Pteruges: leather or fabric strips that formed a skirt or sleeves to protect limbs while maintaining mobility and ventilation. They were usually part of a padding coat worn under the armour, such as the subarmalis. Pteruges could be fitted with small metal studs and plates to provide additional protection.

Sarcina

A military pack carried by legionaries. The pack included a number of items suspended from a furca or carrying pole. Items carried in the pack included:

Loculus: a leather satchel

Waterskin: Roman camps would typically be built near water sources, but each soldier would have to carry his water for the day's march in a waterskin.

Food: each legionary would carry some of his food. Although a Roman army on the move would typically have a baggage train of mules or similar to carry supplies such as food, after the Marian reforms legionaries were required to carry about 15 days worth of basic food supplies with them.

Cooking equipment: including a patera, cooking pot and skewer.

Entrenching tools: Carried by legionaries to construct fortifications and dig latrines etc. Each legionary would typically carry either a shovel (batillum) or dolabra (mattock) for digging, a turf cutting tool or a wicker basket for hauling earth.

Sudis: stakes for construction of camps

Battle and combat

Maintaining morale

The Roman legionary fought first and foremost with his contubernium, the basic eight man unit of the Roman army. The men of the same contubernium fought, slept, ate, and trained together. This strong sense of camaraderie gave Roman legionaries a sense of pride and kept them fighting on the battlefield. The standard bearers, signiferi, were of great importance in keeping Roman soldiers in the battle. The loss of a standard was a disgrace to the century the standard belonged to. As such, standard bearers served as someone to rally around and as someone to exhort legionaries to battle

Optiones, Roman officers at the rear of a formation, had many essential roles outside of battle. However, during battle, their task was to prevent legionaries from routing. Carrying a staff with a ball-end, an optio would force legionaries fleeing from battle back into formation. Leading at the front, centurions would fight alongside legionaries under their command, serving as a role model for his legionaries to remain in combat.

Finally, there were the rewards and punishments, which served as both incentives and deterrents for legionaries in battle. For example, the highly coveted corona civica was given to legionaries who saved a comrade in battle. However, death was the punishment for a variety of different offenses. Those who committed cowardice and dereliction of duty were stoned to death by their comrades. On very rare occasions when a whole unit displayed cowardice, the unit might be decimated, in which one out of every ten soldiers were executed. Less extreme punishments included demotions, changing the wheat rations to barley, and the removal of some identifying military gear.

Prelude to battle

Large armies would generally not begin battle immediately upon meeting. Rather, days or even weeks of redeployment and negotiation would take place before battle. Several days of maneuvering occurred before the Battle of Pharsalus began. Before battle, measures were taken to ensure legionaries were as effective as possible. These included giving legionaries their meals and resting them before the battle. Their commanders and general would also give speeches during this time. These speeches would heavily emphasize the amount of plunder and riches that winning the battle would give the legionaries, as this was a primary incentive for the legionaries to do battle. Light skirmishing would then take place, with cavalry and auxiliaries probing enemy lines before a pitched battle commenced.

Fighting style

The Roman scutum ranged all the way from flat and oval to curved and rectangular as shown in the image above. The metal boss in all Roman scuta gave them an offensive capability.
The Roman legionary's three principal weapons were the pilum (javelin), scutum (shield), and gladius (short sword). Ideally, the legionaries would throw their pila first as they approached the enemy army. These pila could often penetrate enemy shields and hit the soldiers behind them.Even if the pila failed to pierce the shields, the neck of the javelin would bend, making the shield useless. This then made the enemy vulnerable to missile fire and legionary attack. The disruption and damage wrought by pila would then be followed by the charge of Roman legionaries.

Though Roman scutum had various different designs, they all shared a large metal boss in the center of the shield. This allowed the legionary to not only use the scutum as defensive equipment but also as an offensive weapon. Legionaries would have used this iron boss to punch and shove the enemy combatants. Accompanying this was the gladius, a primarily stabbing weapon though it could also be used to cut. These fairly simple tools combined with impressive discipline made the Roman legionary an extremely effective soldier in the ancient world.

Though there were many different formations that legionaries fought in, they tended toward close, ordered formations with gaps between formations. These gaps would allow for reserve units to enter battle or serve as avenues for skirmishing forces to retreat back behind the legionaries. During lulls in the battle, wounded soldiers could further be taken back behind battle lines through these gaps.

~The Roman scutum ranged all the way from flat and oval to curved and rectangular as shown in the image above. The metal boss in all Roman scuta gave them an offensive capability.~

Pay and conditions

During the Pax Romana, a rank-and-file Roman legionary would be paid 225 denarii per year. This was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of Domitian. However, during the third century crisis, inflation and chaos disrupted a legionary's pay, with emperors often letting legionaries seize goods from civilians. Their income was supplemented by donatives from emperors either to secure a legion's loyalty or to award them after a successful campaign. Plunder and loot also supplement a legionary's income and is used as a large incentive for soldiers to follow their emperor in campaigns. At the end of their years of service, Roman legionaries received a small allotment of land or a monetary equivalent.

As the Roman empire solidified, permanent legionary fortresses were constructed and many grew into towns. These fortresses contained bathhouses, taverns, and even amphitheaters where festivals and animal displays were held. However, legionaries were not allowed to legally marry until the reign of Septimius Severus (though their spouses were often recognized), most likely because of the implicit necessity to care for the widow in the event of a legionary's death.

~An aureus, or gold coin used for Roman commerce. In the 3rd century crisis, it underwent rapid inflation and devaluation.~

Training and discipline

When first enlisted, a fresh Roman recruit (tiro) was not given real weapons to train with. Instead, he was given wooden swords and shields designed to be twice the weight of their counterparts in battle. This allowed the recruit to develop strength as he trained with these wooden weapons. Alongside battle training, the recruit was also taught other necessary skills such as swimming and setting up camp. Most of all, however, the recruit was taught discipline, and was drilled twice a day during his training period. After this period, which could last up to six months, the recruit would become a milite and sent to his respective legion.

The Roman soldier underwent especially rigorous training throughout his military career; discipline was the base of the army's success, and the soldiers were relentlessly and constantly trained with weapons and especially with drill—forced marches with full load and in tight formation were frequent. As discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the centurions. Punishments could range from being obliged to spend the night outside the protective security of a fortified camp, through being beaten with clubs (fustuarium—a common punishment for 'slowpokes' during long marches), to the stoning of individuals or unit executions involving decimation. However, honors, rewards, and promotions were frequently awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in battle or through exemplary service.

One of the goals for strong disciplinary training was to expel fear from a Roman soldier. Fear, and the panic that often follows, is a devastating force to an army on the battlefield. The Romans aimed to remove fear through strict physical and mental training. However, a different fear was used to motivate a soldier in spite of the fear of battle; that was the fear of harsh punishment by their commanding officers. In the words of Josephus "they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity".

Diet

A Roman legionary had two meals per day: The prandium (breakfast) and the cena (dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations. This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into hardtack, a long-lasting biscuit.

Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the cibaria, rations other than grain. This included a variety of foodstuffs but mainly wine, vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt, salt-pork, cheese, and olive oil. However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning, or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling.

Healthcare

Permanent Roman forts would contain hospitals, where doctors (medici) operated on wounded, injured, or sick legionaries. These medical personnel also isolated sick soldiers, thereby reducing the chance of a possibly infectious disease spreading through the army. Roman forts and camps were also planned in such a way as to minimize the spread of water-borne illnesses, which ravaged many ancient armies. Engineers took special care in piping fresh water to the camps and carrying sewage downstream of any watering places Those legionaries who were seriously and permanently wounded or injured would be granted missio causaria, or a medical discharge. This discharge would come with many benefits including exemption from some taxes and some civic duties.

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