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Only with efficiency modules can you hit a hard limit, can't drop below 20% energy consumption.
https://www.factorio.com/blog/post/fff-409
and more exoskeletons do make you run faster and more roboports extend your construction range and the number of bots you can control.
Huh, yes, and no?
Things like shields drain a lot of power when they have to recharge, but once recharged they don't use any power.
Other than that the best example I could give you is the belt immunity device. It uses 100 kW when active. So if you wanted to stand on a moving belt 24/7, 3 solar panels producing 30 kW each would not be enough. But then you'd realise even 4 are not enough, your battery would totally drain before the end of the night. You have to take into account that because of the day and night cycle, the solar panels only average 21 kW (30 kW -30%) on a full day cycle, so if you want 100 kW 24/7, you need 5 panels.
Personally, I don't see a real need for math in this case. Adjust as you go. Never have enough power for a whole night? Add batteries. Batteries never fully recharge? Add panels. Still won't work? Remove something that consumes power. You can't break this down too well anyway, you'll have periods where you're not using shield, others where you are recharging your shields a lot.
Just eyeball it, adjust, it'll work good enough, imo.
Edit: the -30% power production loss due to night (on Nauvis) was true before 2.0. I've read some players asking if that changed since. Maybe it has, idk, never bothered to verify that. But it should be close to -30%, if not still exactly -30%.
Average solar panel power is always 70% of nominal peak power, on all planets, because that fraction follows just from the shape of the day-night curve, regardless of the length of the day or the solar illumination strength.
Hence the "you may never see that", if OP is part of the majority. ;)
I think you should run tests on other planets. You might be surprised.
I might be, but I doubt it. I don't know what mods can do in this regard, but in the standard SA data files, all the planets just specify the overall cycle length
Edit: Detailed calculations are in https://forums.factorio.com/viewtopic.php?p=629003#p629003