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You have to take over the starports in order to get that territory, no matter what.
If either you or the empire you are fighting is considered an imminent threat (like a determined exterminator or a devouring swarm) then you don't have to make claims to get the territory. Otherwise, yes you have to spend influence points to make claims on the star systems you want, then declare war for the claims, and send fleets to conquer those systems. Once you can settle for a status quo with that empire (they never really surrender until you take all their territory and planets), then you will get the systems you took over and had claims on.
You need weapons upgrades and lots of alloys so early in the game you should be making buildings and focusing on techs that boost research and alloys (well the building upgrade for the alloy plant).
If your fleet are a lot weaker than the other empires in the early game, you can sometimes stave off an invasion by giving them gifts (in trade) of food and consumer goods (sometimes minerals), to earn opinion points so they like you better.
Claiming systems is less expensive before the war starts, but it also alerts your enemy that you intend to attack. That will usually prompt them to improve their defenses, so just be aware of that. Depending on circumstances it might be better to make your claims during the war, provided you will have enough influence to claim the systems you want.
Stellaris has gone through many changes as new versions have been released, so keep in mind when you read about the game online (especially about strategy) that some of the things you find may no longer apply. Now every system has a star base, but that was not always true. Also, typically there is no longer any point to attacking mining or research stations. Those changes may render invalid the strategy you've read about.
Most systems will just have a basic star base (an outpost). These are not very dangerous, even in the early game, and you probably don't need to avoid fighting them. In fact, because you have to defeat the outpost in order to take control of a system, only in a strictly defensive war might you ever avoid fighting them entirely.
More advanced star bases can be dangerous, particularly if there is a friendly fleet guarding them. Depending on circumstances you may be able to avoid their systems entirely, sticking to the less-well-defended systems that only have outposts. If you do have to fight a base other than an outpost, make sure your fleet power is stronger than the base and that there are no friendly fleets in the system before you attack it. If there is a fleet there, try to draw it away by defeating enemy outposts, and then attack the fleet while it is in another system (assuming your fleet is stronger, of course).
If you want to enter a system without fighting the enemy star base or fleets automatically, then your fleet stance is key. The default stance will not engage enemies until they get close (where "close" is determined by the weapon range of the ships in the two fleets), and that is the stance you would want to use. The stance you appear to be describing is the aggressive stance, and a fleet in that stance will automatically move toward any hostiles in the system in order to start a fight. So to be able to potentially bypass defenses in a system you would want to make sure that your fleet is not in an aggressive stance. Just be aware that bypassing an enemy fleet may not be as easy as a star base, because they may choose to move to engage your fleet.
I don't think you really have to, but two things:
If both the starbase and planet have FTL inhibitors on them, and the system is at a chokehold point so you can't get past it without defeating it, then you'll need to defeat both the starbase, and conquer the planet.
Another problem is, that if you just send an invasion army to the system without a fleet around, or the fleet going in first to take over the starbase, the transport army is in danger of being wiped out before it can even land on the planet.
Generally at the really early game when you're just corvettes and both sides cap out at about 20 corvettes you aren't gonna take their starbase without some losses and their fleets are likely to disengage, heal up, and come back again while you're attacking the base, this means you'll just be bleeding off ships instead of getting stronger. What you really wanna do is just avoid the starbase in their capital entirely in this first war, instead cap everything else that's easy, all the outposts, all their expansion colonies, get all that and status quo out.
Use the big boost in pop growth and planets to get stronger in the next 10 years while the enemy is contained to their world then after that you'll likely be able to take their capital without worry. You can also go and fight another AI during this 10 year NAP.
Since they have a base in each of their systems, there probably isn't much you can do aside from either building up your fleet to the point that you can take on a base, or else waiting for their fleet to come to you.